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Based on poromechanics models3 the total stress is related to the crystallization pressure Pc according to Eq. (3). In a case that it exceeds the local tensile strength of the frozen rock, a cracking of the rock material will occur (4).
The largest dimensional changes of the porous system were bound to and near the position of the fracture. This information provides complementary information about microcrack opening in this sample. The fracture grew perpendicular to the bedding of the andesite and the pore structure changed.
Besides disturbances caused by human intervention, there are a great many resulting from natural phenomena. Of these, frost heave is one of the most severe. The occurrence of frost action depends on three factors: freezing temperatures; available water; and certain soil characteristics, most notably soil particle size. The absence of any one of the essential conditions precludes the occurrence of frost heave.
For example, it is the influx of additional water into a soil's freezing zone after the freezing has already begun that results in excessive frost heave. The freezing of water initially present does not cause a significant problem. When the water table is near the surface, additional water is available to be drawn up into the freezing zone causing the frost heave problem. A water table within 2 meters of the ground surface indicates a potential hazard and it is normally further from the surface on hills than in low-lying areas. Consequently, less severe frost heave can be expected to be found on hills.
Even though water is available, significant frost heave will not occur unless the soil can draw it up and hold it in the freezing zone. Soils which are capable of this are called "frost susceptible." The main factor in determining frost susceptibility of a soil is particle size distribution. Coarse-grained soils contain spaces that are too large to draw up and hold water. At the other extremity, many clays are impervious to water. (Clays, however, are detrimental for reasons other than frost heave as explained in other sections of the manual.) The soils most susceptible to frost action, and therefore to be avoided where freezing occurs, are silts and silty sands with soil particle sizes less than 0.02 millimeter (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1967).
The terms "expansion" and "contraction" indicate changes in volume resulting from a change in temperature rather than a change in moisture content. Like other materials, soil expands when its temperature rises and contracts when its temperature is lowered. It differs from most other materials in that the range of temperature variation is not constant throughout its depth. At the surface, the temperature variation is near that of the air. At some depth, the temperature is nearly constant throughout the year. In unfrozen soils, expansion and contraction due to temperature change is negligible, but in frozen soils they are factors to consider. In permafrost, temperature change can have a significant effect on a bench mark down to a depth of about 10 meters (Bozozuk et al. 1962).
From the information in this chapter, it is evident that the causes of instability vary widely in both depth of origin and geographical extent. To counteract deep subsurface activity would be economically unfeasible, so bench mark specifications for the National Vertical Control Network have been developed to resist movements at or near the surface. Among such movements are those caused by impact, frost heave, shrinking and swelling of soils, soil expansion and contraction, and in some cases where the effect is not too deep, consolidation. Except for consolidation, bench marks set as described herein can always be expected to resist movements from these causes.
Crests of hills are good places to set bench marks for three reasons. First, the problem of slope instability is eliminated. Even though the neighboring hillside might be sliding, the summit will remain stable. Second, frost heave is less likely with the increased separation from the water table. And third, the consistency of the soil will tend to be more firm.
Whenever soil types can be ascertained, it is preferable to choose a site with coarse-grained soils over one with fine-grained soils. Most of the problems associated with soil movements are attributable to the fine particles it contains. The fraction of grain sizes less than 0.02 millimeter governs whether or not a soil is frost susceptible. Soils susceptible to high volume change due to variation in moisture content are normally clays, which are fine-grained. Also, poorly drained clays provide environments conducive to corrosion. Avoid sites with fine-grained soils whenever an alternative is available.
The presence of vegetation, particularly trees, has marked influence on the stability of the upper layers of a soil mass. Trees, underbrush, grass, and moss act as insulation, reducing the depth of the active frost zone and thus reducing frost heave. However, the problem of expansive soils is aggravated by vegetation. In seasons of abundant rainfall, vegetation exerts very little influence on soil volume change. When the weather is dry and only a little free water is available in the soil, trees and other plants draw even more out than normally is lost through evaporation and lowering of the water table. This results in even greater shrinkage. With trees, this effect occurs within a distance from the trees roughly equal to their heights (Bozozuk and Burn 1960).
Relating the stability of a large structure to that of a class A rod mark can be accomplished by (1) comparing the depth of the structure's foundation to the required depth for the sleeve (table 2, page 27), and (2) assuring that the structure is a multi-story concrete, masonry, or steel unit. The class A rod mark sleeve is set to a depth below that affected by expansive soils and frost heave. For comparable stability, a massive structure's foundation need not be as deep as the sleeve because the weight of the structure can resist some of the force exerted by the ground which tends to move it. Also, the structure itself will have a shielding effect on the soil below, making conditions such as temperature and moisture content less variable. If its foundation is at least a quarter as deep as a class A rod mark's specified sleeve depth, a massive structure will be considered stable. Small structures, such as semaphores, concrete culverts, platforms, retaining walls, bridges, etc., must never be used. Very large bridges can be used only if it is positively determined that the structural member in which the disk will be placed rests directly on bedrock.
Since most structures are expected to settle both during and some time after construction, those less than 5 years old must not be used as settings for bench marks unless the foundations are on bedrock. Choose a structure that has a long life expectancy. Modern buildings will probably remain undisturbed a long time, but make sure that they have not been too newly constructed. Older buildings may last a long time if they have historical signficance.Caution must be taken to assure that the disk is placed in a spot that is an integral part oft he structure s foundation or fixed rigidly to it. Placing a disk on an appendage, such as steps entering a building, is unacceptable unless the appendage has its own foundation of sufficient depth. Avoid places which might be damaged or covered during, construction of an addition to the structure. Building entrances are especially susceptible to reconstruction. Miscellaneous Areas To Avoid As explained in the chapter on sources of instability, sites near water reservoirs and large rivers, where the water level is variable, can rise and fall due to rebound and compression of the soil. This movement might be thought by the layman to be minor, but in terms of precise geodetic measurements, it is not. Where possible, bench marks should be established a few hundred meters from the confines of these sources of ground activity. Permafrost has a stabilizing effect on bench marks anchored to a sufficient depth within it, but significant expansion and contraction of frozen ground due to temperature variation can occur to a depth of about 10 meters. A bench mark anchored below this depth can be expected to be quite stable. In regions where permafrost normally exists near the surface, thawing influences can keep the ground in an unfrozen condition to a depth greater than that which is prevalent. Any body of water, such as a pond, lake, or river, will have this effect. Other influential effects include buildings, roads, pipelines, and, in short, any mark of civilization.Corrosive EnvironmentThe rate at which a material will corrode or deteriorate is affected by its environment. Two conditions are required before corrosion can occur. (1) The metal being corroded must be in contact with an electrolyte, or liquid capable of conducting electric current. This makes it possible for certain chemical reactions to occur. Electrolytes vary widely, ranging from a minute amount of nearly pure water formed by condensation, to sea water. (2) There must be a dissimilarity in two areas of the surface being corroded. This could result from the presence of strains or inclusions in an alloy, the contact of dissimilar metals, or a multitude of possibilities between these extremes.
7. Sprinkle some dry cement on the exposed surface of the disk; then rub it with a clean rag using circular strokes. This will clean the disk very nicely, removing all excess mortar from its surface and recessed letters. Rubbing the wet mortar around the edge of the disk in the same manner will do no harm. On the contrary, this is often done intentionally to finish its surface and prevent cracking. Brush away loose cement and make sure that the finished product has a very neat appearance.
In setting a disk in a massive concrete or masonry structure; first make sure the structure is stable. Its foundation must extend to a depth that equals or exceeds 25 percent of the specified depth of the sleeve for the class A rod mark, as indicated in table 2 (page 27). Furthermore, the foundation must be at least as deep as the maximum depth of frost penetration indicated on the map in figure 13 (page 34). 2b1af7f3a8